Wolbachia: the Male Murderer

WOLBACHIA. This is such an interesting word. When I first heard it, I thought it was the name of some creature in Star Wars similar to Chewbacca. I was really confused about what this thing really is. Well, in a nutshell, Wolbachia bacteria are parasitic bacteria that live in the reproductive organs of organisms in the phylum Arthropoda and various insects. A crazy fact about these bacteria is that they have increased the female population and weened off a lot of the males. How is this possible you ask? Well, there are three main kinds of relationships between organisms: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Mutualism is when both organisms benefit and commensalism is when one benefits and the other is unharmed. Wolbachia bacteria are an example of parasitism, which is when one organism benefits and the other is negatively impacted. However, Wolbachia, seen in the picture below, is more than just a parasite. Since it lives inside the insect, Wolbachia is considered an endosymbiotic parasite. This bacteria can be considered symbiotic, but only when it is found in nematodes. Wolbachia has the ability to change the gender of the sex cell, most of the time to female, since the bacteria is passed on through the mother’s eggs; men cannot pass the bacteria, so it reproduces through females.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Wolbachia.png

Why is Wolbachia being studied? Good question. This organism is different from the other parasitic ones because it can be transferred in two ways: horizontally and vertically. Most parasitic organisms are transmitted horizontally, by contact with another organism. Wolbachia can be transferred not only horizontally but vertically as well. A vertical transmit is through the female’s eggs to the offspring. Being able to transmit both ways allows the bacteria to ensure survival. There are many different strains of Wolbachia found in insects all over the world, and we are studying insects around the Peninsula to see whether or not Wolbachia is present here. By changing the sex of offspring, Wolbachia impacts the species of insects since it increases the amount of females. This creates an imbalance in the female to male ratio, and limits reproduction in the case where females with Wolbachia will only mate with Wolbachia males.

In this lab, we are testing fresh insect and arthropod DNA to see if it contains the Wolbachia bacteria. In order to determine whether or not an insect had the bacteria, we extracted the insect’s DNA, separated the strand with gel electrophoresis, and compared the results to the control sample. First, we gathered arthropods and insects to extract the DNA from. Next, we cut off the abdomen, and smashed it in a tube. This DNA was then put in a water bath, spun a few times, and then loaded into the wells for gel electrophoresis. After the PCR machine ran, the results were as seen below.

 Picture from Mrs. Girard

I worked with Shauna and Nicole to prepare the solutions, and the results were compared alongside Simone’s, Allie’s, Marissa’s, Davis’s, and the control. You may be a little confused as to what this picture is illustrating. The lines seen in the picture are called bands and these bands represent DNA strands. The bands move from left to right, and the bigger they are, the less they move. Insect DNA is larger than Wolbachia DNA, and is the closest band to the left. If there is only one band close to the left shown in Marissa’s result, this is insect DNA only. If there is only one band to the right which is rare but seen in Davis’s results, this insect only had Wolbachia DNA. If there are two bands as seen with Allie’s result, this shows that the insect had both insect and Wolbachia DNA.

It was interesting to do this lab because I have not done something like it before. I have used gel electrophoresis but I have never really used a living organisms DNA to study. I felt that it was a good lab to end the year with because it required use of a lot of subjects learned this year such as genetics/DNA, Arthropoda, mutations, bacterial transmission, gel electrophoresis, and more. I felt very proud that I was able to use all of my knowledge and apply it to one lab; I know if I had attempted this lab in the beginning of the year, I would not have understood any of it and I would have struggled. I am proud of my AP Bio classmates for sticking through everything and learning so much.

The Mysterious Case of Bob Bacon

A couple of weeks ago in Bio Class, we covered the topic of body systems. In order to really understand the different systems, we did a project called “CSI NDB”. We were split into three different groups of five, and each group was given a body system. One group had the nervous, another had the cardiovascular system, and we had the immune system as seen below.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Lymphocyte_activation_simple.png

Since we were dissecting fetal pigs, we revolved our project around a pig named Bob Bacon. Watch the video below to see what our project was all about! There were a couple different reasons for Bob’s death: bacteria, HIV, drugs, parasites, or chemical exposure. After each person went to each of the stations explaining the five possible causes, she narrowed the reasons down to HIV and being drugged at a party. An alibi told the class that Bob did not attend the party, so the only possible reason was HIV. Since HIV weakens the immune system and prevents it from functioning properly, Bob’s cat infected him with a virus: toxoplasma gondii. This virus ended up killing Bob.

Video filmed by Abi Grassler and edited by Marissa Whitaker

HIV is lethal to the immune system because it kills off the good T cells, which attack viral and bacterial pathogens int eh body. Without T cells, the body cannot properly fight off infection and therefore is most susceptible to all illnesses.

Beachy Keen: Biodiversity in the Pools

Yesterday my AP Bio class took a field trip to the Fitzgerald Marine Reserve in Half Moon Bay. We left at 7:30 in the morning and drove over to the reserve. It was sprinkling a little bit so I was afraid of the cold but it was actually a really fun field trip! I learned a lot about the biodiversity of the organisms found in the tide pools and the characteristics. One thing I learned is that many of the anemones, including the aggregating anemones, are covered in sand and shells as seen in the picture below. Why do the sticky bumps on their skin collect this “garbage”? Shells and sand not only act as a camouflage but as a protectant against the sun to prevent drying out. Pretty cool huh? Another thing I learned is about the strength of the sea plants and clams. Many people think that stepping on the plants and the clams hurts and kills them since they are living breathing beings. I used to think the same thing until I was told differently. These plants and clams are able to withstand a considerable amount of weight due to the mavericks and huge waves that come crashing down upon these organisms. The third thing I learned is that encrusting coralline algae, which is  pinkish color, turns white when it dies. The white on the rocks makes it look a little bit like dried bird poop. This was interesting to me but did not surprise me since it made sense that the dead algae lost all of its color and turned a pale white color.

Picture taken by Mrs. Girard

In class a little while ago, we learned about protists and how they were commonly caracterized as plants. Algae, as plant-like as it may seem, is a protist. There were many different types of algae in the tidal pools including Green Pin-cushion, Tar Spot, Encrusting Coralline (seen below in #1), Upright Coralline (seen below in #2), Scouring Pad, Lawn Algae, and many more.

This is a picture of Encrusting Coralline and…..https://c1.staticflickr.com/5/4127/5191179813_b3bc8a2e4f_b.jpg

this is a picture of upright coralline.http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Mesophyllum_sp..jpg

Something else we learned in class that related to the field trip is about the phylum mollusca. One kind of animal found in this phylum are sea snails since they are “soft-bodied”, have a head and foot region, and they have a hard shell made of chitin. There was a very common type of gastropod in the tide pools: turban snails. They look like this:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Tegula_funebralis.jpg

One thing I will always remember is the group of seals laying out together on the tide pools. They were flopping around and feeding and mating, so we had to be quiet. I really enjoyed this field trip and I was impacted by the service learning aspect. It was fun to be exploring and digging around in the pools while taking stats and helping the reserve to analyze the data we collect. I definitely would have worn warmer clothes since I thought I was going to get my feet wet. I honestly would not change anything about the since it was enjoyable and entertaining, despite the fact that it was relatively short.

I encourage every to go to the reserve and to check out the tide pools since they were pretty fascinating! This trip is for all ages, no matter how much biological knowledge is present beforehand. This field trip is definitely something I recommend to continue for the future AP Bio classes 🙂

Do Now Vaccinate

Did you ever wonder what would happen if some people did not get vaccines? Recently there was an outbreak of measles, spread in Disneyland. This endemic spread to seventeen states and hit more than 140 people. Some may not think that 140 is a big number, but measles is highly contagious without the vaccination and there is no cure. Although there is no cure, there is a vaccine that had previously eliminated almost all of the cases of measles. It became very uncommon and few people in America caught the illness. Unfortunately, less people are getting the vaccination and as a result, the number of cases is increasing.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Dryvax.jpg

This whole outbreak shows what happens when people do not get the necessary vaccinations such as the one above. If everyone continued to get vaccinated, then this outbreak would not have happened since our bodies would be prepared to fight off the measles and it would not affect us.

I think that vaccines should be required because it is in the best interest of all people. I understand that some people have religious reasons or fears as to why they do not vaccinate, but catching these viruses and spreading them because you do not want a vaccine is wrong to me. Why would you put your child and loved ones in danger of catching these terrible illnesses just because you do not want your child to get a vaccination? I think that people should think more about others than themselves when it comes down to issues like this. I do not see any harm in getting vaccinated since it is safe and effective, so I think it should be required for all.

Check out the Do Now and decide for yourself!

One, Two, Three…Let’s Make a Baby!

Did you ever think it was possible to make a baby with three people? We have always known that a baby is made with one male and one female. Well recently, the UK authorized a process to modify mitchondrial DNA. What is mitchondrial DNA? It is the DNA that we all get from our mothers as seen on the right in the picture below. Sometimes, this DNA is encrypted with fatal or incurable diseases which gives the baby a high risk of not being healthy. According to statistics, one baby is born every thirty minutes with diseased mitochondrial DNA and as a result, his life span is very short. These babies grow up and have bad symptoms and physical issues. This got the UK thinking, wouldn’t it be great to change the mitochondrial DNA?

By passing this law, doctors can use a donor’s healthy nucleus to put into the fertilized egg to replace the mother’s mutated one. This way, the baby is still created from the father’s sperm and the mother’s egg, but the third parent allows the child to be healthy with disease free DNA. This process is a huge scientific advancement and can save many lives. However, there is much controversy. Some people are afraid that parents will want to start genetically modifying their embryos by changing their attributes.

I think that this is a huge advancement that can prevent many diseases and better the human race. However, I think it should only be used in extreme cases when the child is facing a case of life or death. I think the circumstances should be evaluated, and it should be used as a last resort. I do not think this process should be available to all for diseases such as the minor ones and that it should not become a normality. It should not be available to all since I am afraid that it will become something that all parents when conceiving. Some diseases are not fatal and although they are a nusence, they are not a huge problem. Diseases are a form of diversity and can make children different. I think this process could lead to corruption and people trying to perfect the human race. I am a stickler about loving the child no matter what, and that they are created the way the are for a reason. If the child has Turner’s syndrome, Cri du Chat, or other similar diseases, then I think this process is necessary and definitely useful!

What do you think? Comment below!

@KQEDedspace

TO FEAR OR NOT TO FEAR: Dengue Virus

        To see more of my infographic about Dengue Virus

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 Click Here

 

Mask the Germs!

“Should cold sufferers wear medical masks to help prevent spreading germs? Would you wear one the next time you have a cold?”

These are good questions proposed in the KQED article. Everyone’s had the cold, yet it keeps coming around. Many people brush off the common cold and think it is just a minimal thing. The more we ignore symptoms of the virus, the more likely we are to spread it and keep it circulating from person to person. The average person gets the cold about two to three times a year. Although the cold is harmless for many, it can be dangerous for young children and older people since their immune systems are not as strong. The problem with the common cold is that it cannot be fought off by antibiotics since it is a virus. When the immune system is not strong enough to fight off the cold naturally, it lingers and can cause harm and lead to worse illnesses such as pneumonia.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Sneeze.JPG

Symptoms of the Common Cold:

-sore throat

-sneezing

-runny nose

-fatigue

-headache

-coughing

Since these symptoms are so minimal and do not inhibit everyday life, humans have a habit of ignoring them and continuing on with the daily tasks. If you have these symptoms, you are a lucky host of the common cold! It lasts a few days and if it does not go away, then you may have something worse. Have you ever thought about why your body keeps getting the same cold time and time again? Many ask why their antibodies are not being produced to identify the cold and Something that not many people know is that the common cold is not the same every single time you catch it. According to research, there are about 200 different variations of the common cold virus.

Some people think that wearing a medical mask could prevent the spread of the common cold; this has proven to be effective for doctors, nurses, and dentists. Viruses spread through the exchange of mucus and saliva, shared through sneezes and coughs. Masks block aerosols, tiny particles, that contain the virus. The only problem with medical masks is that they decrease the fresh oxygen intake and are inconvenient. Do you think masks are worth it?

I think that if you are constantly sneezing and coughing, yet you still want to go out, then you should wear a mask. If you do not have extreme symptoms, then I do not think a face mask is a necessity as long as you are cautious and courteous towards those around you!

Remember to always wash your hands!

TED Talk: Never, Ever Give Up

In this TED Talk, a woman named Diana Nyad talks about her journey and struggles in completing the swim from Cuba to Florida. She mentions how she had tried four times, starting in her twenties, to complete the task but she was unable. No one had ever swam that route before, and she had this ever burning fire inside of her that urged her to be the first. Finally she was able to complete the 100 mile swim at age 64, with the help of her friends and team. This story amazed me because it was fascinating to see someone so dedicated, driven, passionate, and motivated. She had no fear of failing, no expectations of fame, only the drive to be successful. Surprisingly to me, Diana was very humble; she constantly gave credit to her team and explained that it was a team success. I liked her thoughts about being on “this journey” for a short time and focuses on the journey instead of the destination. Her mantra was “Find a way. You have a dream and obstacles in front of you, but none of us ever get through this life without heartache and turmoil. If you believe and have faith, if you believe and have perseverance, you’ll find a way.”

The three things she says to live by are the following:

1. Never, ever give up.

2. You can chase your dreams at any age, no one is too old.

3. It is a team effort

There have been times when I wanted to achieve a goal, but I tried to be realistic and tell myself that it is virtually impossible. A lot of times, I give up on my goals and do not follow through, because I do not have faith in myself and I am not dedicated like Diana. The talk made me realize that anything is possible if you really work at it and try your best. You will not get anywhere in life or accomplish anything if you do not keep trying and have faith. I know that Diana trained for hours and tried multiple times, so I realize that giving up after failing one time is a bad choice because something great could be accomplished if you stick with it.

Sick Science- Spool DNA at Home!

Since we just learned about genetics and DNA replication, Shauna O’Donoghue and I performed an experiment to extract DNA. DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, carries genetic information to build proteins and construct cells. DNA has a double helix structure, with different arrangements of bases. DNA is condensed into chromosomes, and we have 23 pairs. The genetic information varies from person to person, so that no two people are exactly the same. Even though DNA is what makes us unique, DNA is found in every eukaryotic organism, even strawberries!

To perform this experiment, Shauna and I used the following:

-1/3 cup of water                       -isopropyl alcohol (chilled)                 -two glasses

-1 tablespoon dish soap           -plastic bag with a zip top                   -wooden stirring tool

-1/2 tsp salt                               -one strawberry (green top cut off)     -tweezers

Each ingredient had its own purpose in removing the DNA. The soap was used to weaken and dissolve the membranes, the salt to assist the DNA in grouping and the breakdown protein chain. The water acts as a solvent to mix the soap, salt, and strawberry. The isopropyl alcohol separates the solution and the DNA since the DNA cannot mix with the alcohol.

After mixing the solution of water, salt, and soap, we added this to the bag containing the strawberry. We mashed up the strawberry and mixed it with the solution. We strained out the strawberry chunks and added rubbing alcohol to the liquid solution in the cup. Making sure not to mix the strawberry solution with the isopropyl alcohol, we waited for the DNA to become noticeable. We observed as it happened relatively quickly. Once we could visibly see the DNA clump, we extracted the bunch of DNA with the tweezers and observed.

This experiment was really fun, easy, and educational! Before we did the experiment, we were afraid that the experiment would take a long time and would not work since we’ve never extracted DNA before. Shauna and I did a trial experiment before we recorded the video to make sure we did all the steps correctly. But when we tried to extract the DNA, we could not find any chunks! We hypothesized that this lack of chunks was because of two errors. One was that most of the salt was left in the bottom of the first cup and never entered the bag with the strawberry. The job of the salt is to help the DNA clump together so without the salt, the DNA was not able to clump. The second reason was because the strawberry was not in the bag with the solution for the necessary amount of time. Since each variable has its own job in extracting the DNA, without proper interaction between the organism and the mixture, each thing cannot do its job. In the second time around when we recorded the video, we made sure that most of the salt entered the bag and that the strawberry was in there for longer. The experiment was successful! We were able to connect a lot about what we’ve learned about the structure of DNA to this experiment. We really enjoyed this experiment and we highly recommend that everyone else tries the experiment.

Cracking the Code of Life: Movie Reflection

In my AP Bio class, we learned about genetics, DNA replication, and protein synthesis. After learning about these three chapters in great detail, I watched a movie called “Cracking the Code of Life”. This documentary, made by PBS, is all about the Human Genome Project. What is this project, you ask? It is an international research project to determine the DNA sequence of the human genome. Its goals are to decode the entire human genome, interpret and examine the genetic code, and to determine the different sequence mutations that lead to diseases. Before this project took action, scientists used an old process of looking at gene mapping; they looked at ladder sequences, wrote the letter next to the band, and typed them into the computer. This process took hours and hours, and only a few hundred sequences were deciphered in a day. Now with the use of computers and new technology, a thousand genes are read every second as seen below.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Radioactive_Fluorescent_Seq.jpg

By looking at the “code” of a person, we can determine if the person is at risk for Alzheimer’s, breast cancer, or other diseases such as Tay Sach’s. Tay Sach’s disease is a genetic condition that slowly destroys a baby’s brain. It is a very rare disease that must come from both parents. The chances of getting the disease with both parents as carriers is seen below. This happens when one letter goes wrong and does not make a specific protein that stops the fats in the brain. In the movie, the Lord family was interviewed since the two twin brothers each had a baby with this disease. The Human Genome Project can benefit people like the Lord Family because it allows families to find out early if their children are at risk for genetic diseases which gives them a chance to prevent and stop the passing of the disease.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Autorecessive.svg

Craig Venter, a scientist entrepreneur and speed boat enthusiast, created a company called Celera. This company has two labs working together to decipher the human genome. The goal of the company is the look at all the genes in the genome in two years, even though other companies planned to do it in fifteen years. One of Celera’s locations is in Alameda, CA. This private company wants to decode the genome and then request patents for the genes so that it can sell the sequences and profit from the project.

Do you think we are similar to a banana? You may think no as I did, but we actually are very similar! All the machinery for replicating DNA, completing basic functions, going through the cell cycle, and more are the same. Weird right?

Another disease that is very common is Cystic Fibrosis. This disease attacks several organs of the body, especially the lungs. A women, Toni Robbins, is an interesting case being closely studied because she had no symptoms until the age of fifteen. Most people get it young, when they are still children, so scientists think Toni has good proteins that replace the missing ones due to the genetic mutations. Scientists have been studying her proteome, or the collection of all her proteins. The proteome is so important because genes make proteins which power the cell. Without proteins, cells would not function and the body would fail.

Scientists were interested in studying the people of Iceland because the government has records of everyone’s written family tree in a data base. I think this is a good idea because it can lead to some great medical advancements, but the scientists should ask permission of the people first. One thing I am against however, is the choice of child. I do not think that parents should be able to choose the DNA of their child since it could mess with genetic diversity and a lot of children would start to look very similar. I think the beauty of having a child is that it is a mixture of you and your significant other, and it is a big gamble of genes. We are all born the way we are supposed to be, and I think choosing a baby’s phenotype and genotype is not supposed to happen. I think it is a good idea for doctors to allow parents to see if their baby could potentially have genetic mutations, but not to choose the outcome of their child.

I really liked this movie because it really related to what we just learned and it made me connect the chapters to everyday life. I understood just how important DNA replication is, along with genetic variation. I really think anyone interested in genetics should watch this movie!